Assignment 2 - Module 3

After reading the debate between Dibbell and Miller, present an argument about whether a person can or cannot be raped in cyberspace. How are sexually violent crimes like rape connected to a person's identity beyond the physical body?

As with most laws, much of their reinforcement is up to the interpretation that one has of the given case. In regards to two articles about a fantasy site on the Internet where people are being sexually tormented by other cyberspacers, I believe that much consideration in deciding whether or not it is considered rape is up to, first of all, the conditions of the circumstances and, secondly, the varying definitions of rape.

To one extent, I do not believe that a person can be raped in cyberspace. Through the internet, one is not physically or unlawfully forcing another into sexual intercourse. As with the example of the character “Mr. Bungle” in Dibbell’s excerpt, although his actions against multiple women inside the chat room were vulgar and in very poor taste, there was no tangible or bodily harm that came to the women from Mr. Bungle’s actions. As said by Dibbell, “No bodies touched. Whatever physical interaction occurred consisted of a mingling of electronic signals sent from sites spread out between New York City and Sydney, Austrailia” (201). In this sense, there is a large amount of separation and physical security that can come from this variation of sexual abuse, as the victim faces no immediate risk to his or herself. To a greater extent, the concept of personal choice is a, furthermore, overbearing issue that differentiates physical and online rape. One makes the conscious decision to enter a chatroom or other online programs, so there is a certain amount of risk that is knowingly possible through these sources.

However, despite such technicalities, I do find truth in another aspect of rape occurring within cyberspace – the emotional aspects, or that of the mind. Although, obviously, one cannot be physically violated through computer monitors, I do feel that the emotional consequences of such an event can be just as substantial as those experienced from a physically raped victim. Clearly stated by Dibbell in his excerpt, “since rape can occur without any physical pain or damage, then it must be classified as a crime against the mind,” the emotional products that come from such a traumatic event can be just a similar whether from a real or virtual source (218). Just as much, whether in a real-life scenario or via the Internet, images or memories of the event will continue to haunt the victim for an immeasurable amount of time in the future. Oftentimes, rape victims come to live in fear of their aggressors or adapt long-term psychological problems associated with their trauma – which can have negative effects on a person’s emotional and physical health. It is through such flashbacks or other mechanisms where victims may remain constantly trapped in their own past.

It is in this emotional perspective where a relationship can be observed between the physical act of rape and that performed upon the members of LambdaMOO. Although I cannot relate to the extensiveness of their involvement, to the members of this cyber community their interactions with one another through their expressed characters are very much representations of their emotional selves. Through his own experience within such a cyber environment, Dibbell writes that it is important to recognize “in a full-bodied way that what happens inside a MUD-made world is neither exactly real nor exactly make-believe, but profoundly, compellingly, and emotionally meaningful” (204). To some, involvement in such cyber communities is very much an emotional lifestyle where otherwise unshared insecurities may be invested in the form of a created character. It comes even to a point where those involved are treading the fine line between the cyber world and reality. Thus, as with any other activities, when one devotes so much of their emotional identity into something and something destructive happens, then serious psychological distress is bound to occur. Therefore, in the case of the members of LambdaMOO, as they are all so firmly linked to their digital characters, any kind of harm or harassment done unto the characters online directly affects the emotional states of the real-life people themselves.

All in all, as with the case of Mr. Bungle in Dibbell’s excerpt, although no physical molestation occurred, the emotional consequences of such traumatic events on the characters is enough to be found equivalent to the psychological effects of rape.

Assignment 2: Module 2 - Who We Really Are

Do you speak in different ways when with different sets of people? If so, describe those various ways; describe how you speak differently to different audiences (professors, peers, parents, etc.). Reread what you wrote: in which group -- speaking which "language" -- are you most sincerely yourself? Are other parts of yourself represented to the other groups also truly you?

Human interaction in general is a complex entity that plays into each of our psychiatric and personal characters depending on our audience. Especially living in the United States where everyone is so crucially judged by one another, we all tend to play into our own illusions in order to make ourselves most appeasable to others’ preferences. By using images and conversations as our sole original bases to glimpse into the character of a person, I completely agree that we, myself included, manipulate our mannerisms and very beings to be compatible with what is expected from others.

In general, I believe that there are three distinct ways that I carry myself, and each occurs around different sorts of people. First of all, I usually a very quiet and reserved person towards those with whom I am not very familiar or even those who am intimidated by. I think that it is a very challenging feat to open up to those who you are not completely comfortable with, as there is a certain fear of rejection or misunderstanding that can arise simply on first impressions. In comparison, however, when with my friends or in other comfortable situations I feel that my communication is much more relaxed – no matter how informal or even silly it may be. When in such situations, there is less pressure for a person to present first impressions on others, so there is a greater allowance for a relaxed character through informal speech or actions. However, I can still understand how certain pressures may remain when communicating within a similar age group. In contrast, I find myself reacting and conversing even differently when in audience with my parents or other adults of authority. With such people, I find myself speaking in a more reserved and educated manner. Such situations can be very intimidating, and in trying to gain the affection of your audience it is often best to manipulate yourself into being seemingly cultured and sophisticated.

When questioning which variation of my speech is “truly me,” I do not feel that I have a concrete solution. In each of the situations, though they may vary, they all are expressions of my personality and how I interact with others within my surroundings. Though I would probably most likely agree with how I act when around my friends, as it is the most comfortable of situations where I do not consciously manipulate my actions, I still believe that even such interactions can be influenced by our social surroundings. As author Daniel J. Bourstein put it, currently our society is solely based upon “images that we have mistaken for reality.” The media, expectations of others, and our social environment all play a part in “defining” who we are. I believe that, although confusing, there can be no set description of our personalities – we can only highlight such traits to make them most understandable to those around us.

Assignment 2: Module 4

As with any psychiatric problem, much of a mentally ill person’s diagnosis is up to the interpretation of the individual psychologist. Whether through the changes in time period, personal opinion, or even religious beliefs, there are a variety of factors that may play a part in the analysis of a given person’s emotional and/or psychiatric nature. Such is noted in both the cases regarding, first, Margaret Cooper in “A True and Most Dreadful Discourse” and, secondly, Eve White in The Three Faces of Eve. While both women can be currently diagnosed with having a Multiple-Personality Disorder, each of their cases are very different, as Margaret was considered to be “possessed” rather than Eve who was said to have a “illness.”

In the case of Margaret Cooper, her mental situation can be looked at in two different directions of causality. The first is a more scientific approach where her changes in actions and speech where due to some kind of medical occurrence, such as seizures or mental illness. The second is the most widely accepted approach during that time period, that Margaret’s outward actions and changes in behavior were due to a supernatural or religious factor. As with many other explainable events or actions, religion or the supernatural is often used to describe and give clarification to otherwise complex issues. However, when we look at a mental problem in terms of a spiritual dilemma much about this model can be both hidden and highlighted. When deemed “possessed with the devil,” Margaret is then viewed to be at fault within the situation – that she had committed some morally corrupt deed and is being punished for her actions. But, therefore, on more positive side, she has the chance to rid herself of this condition should she choose to ask for forgiveness from some higher power who would, in turn, alleviate her demons.

What is hidden in Margaret Cooper’s model is, in contrast, highlighted in that situation of Eve White found in The Three Faces of Eve. Unlike with Margaret’s possession where she is at fault for her mental illness (or demon), in Eve White’s case she is looked to have an unwarranted disease. In this case, a more passive approach is taken towards Eve’s recovery, as when using the model of a disease or illness, the affected has no control over what is happening to them. Thus, by comparing Margaret’s strange actions to being possessed, she is solely blamed for her transgressions and current mental state; whereas by comparing Eve’s actions to being ill, she faces no responsibility for what she has done.

It is from such distinctions where one can see how each of the cases may be viewed and responded to differently in the given public. In Margaret’s case, many were hesitant to help her situation, as the idea of being possessed is more of a personal problem that conflicted with the spiritual beliefs at that time. To be possessed by demons would have required Margaret to have sinned greatly or fallen away from God in some way, thus the only solution for her problem would be to ask for forgiveness and begin self-improvement. This is exemplified when she is being chased by the “headless bear,” yet the only thing that everyone in her family does is pray. In comparison, when viewing Eve’s condition as an illness, she faces no blame for her mental state. To her doctors and friends, her mental state is an uncontrollable entity and she confronted only support and assurance towards her sickness. But, for this situation, there is little hope in what she personally can do in order to better the situation. This is shown when Eve White finally becomes aware of her situation and slowly loses control of her identity due to the strength of her other two personalities.

In the case of the second excerpt, I get the impression that author Ian Hacking is very skeptical about the diagnosis of Multiple-Personality Disorder entirely. Comparable to the feelings of Eve White’s husband in The Three Faces of Eve, Hacking expresses the ambiguity of the disorder within psychiatric care, as there is truly no scientific way to diagnose a person having this syndrome. Reasonably questioning whether the increasing number of occurring cases of people having this disorder is in direct correlation with its increasing awareness, Hacking infers that psychiatrists may be even diagnosing simply abnormal or peculiar behavior with having some sort of mental disease. However, despite such accusations, I believe that Hacking would still favor that condition expressed by Eve White in The Three Faces of Eve. In the final parts of his excerpt, Hacking finds that a person’s past has much consequence in their future mental health. As a person, our surroundings and personal experiences very much construct who we are and, logically, such expressions can change over time. Overall, despite his skepticism towards the general diagnosis of Multiple-Personality Disorder, I believe that Hacking still deems that the disorder has a valid possibility of occurrence.

Assignment 2 - Metaphors in Action III: Understanding Humanity - Module 6

If you read through the encyclopedia and dictionary entries, you will see that there is a moment when we switched from talking about “sense impressions” to “sense data”: given the definitions of “data” from the O.E.D., its use as a term for bits of information stored on a computer, mightn't we have switched from thinking about minds as printing presses (impression) to minds as computers? If so, what would be the implications of that switch?

To answer that question, first ask yourself, what ideas about how humans think are highlighted and hidden by the metaphor mind="printing press"? What ideas are highlighted and hidden by mind="computer"? Now you can see some differences in thinking about human minds, a change that has happened historically in the way we conceive humans, just as the way we conceived bats changed throughout history. What did the printing-press model or metaphor help us understand better about human minds? what worse? Answer the same question about the computer metaphor. You have now figured out some of the implications of that historical switch!

Within society, our use of various metaphors is very much dependant on our surrounding culture and influences in our daily life. Over time, society’s values have changed, as well as our dependence on technology and human perception. More and more we are becoming a civilization based on analysis and interpretation rather than restricted and straight-forward understanding. In such a way, this difference reflects the changing of the metaphor for the human thought process from a printing press to that of a computer. Technology and, therefore, advancement defines our achievement through history and our current state of comprehension. Thus, this changing of metaphors is essential to simple human evolution, as we use such models to help define and understand our ever-changing world.

In context with humans, a printing press is a mechanism used to mass produce a single page of information through mindless and monotonous activity. Already recorded data has been handled and condensed to fit a standard model of reproduction. However, notably, in its day the printing press was the most recent form of technology and was substantially radical for its time. In such a way, this model can be used in comparison to the “impression” of data on the human mind. This metaphor highlights the initial senses or ideas that are gained when one first learns a piece of information. As like colloquial statement of the importance of “first impressions” on a person, the printing press metaphor best represents the biased perception that we have of the world around us. With this view, the metaphor hides how such perceptions may be changed. Unlike a printing press where the ink is permanently marked upon the paper, human understanding and, therefore, “impression” of the world may be continuously altered through newly gained information or experiences. These impressions are always kept in our minds and are actively changed.

In contrast, as with the concept of scientists using radar to help describe a bat’s sense of surrounding, we may use the concept of a computer to further describe the complexity of the human mind. As previously stated, with the influence of technology, we are constantly reevaluation our models to analyze many of the unexplainable processes or characteristics of the world. Unlike the process of a printing press, a computer represents the active possibilities of our minds to analyze changing material and store that for long periods of time. The original impressions like that from a printing press may fade or be forgotten over time, however for a computer these memories, thoughts, or ideas may be stored permanently and organized in a way that can be made logical for the person. It is this aspect of the human mind that is highlighted through this model. In comparison, however, the use of the computer metaphor hides the importance of original perception, as described by John Locke. Within the computer model, we may have uncovered the meanings or significance of a certain occurrence, but it does not reveal the original “impression” or sense that lead to that analysis.

Ultimately, although both the printing press and computer are appropriate models to help express the absorption of information by the human mind, in a more cultural perspective, the computer model can be found to be more effective. Reflecting our more active role in achieving information, the computer acts as a modern representation of a more complex understanding. However, in the same way, even this modern metaphor may continue to hide many aspects of original understanding and, therefore, the human mind.

Assignment 1 - Metaphors in Action I: Determining Public Policy: Module 3

Metaphor as Action: Determining Public Policy
Assignment 1

In Metaphors We Live By, Lakoff and Johnson describe Jimmy Carter's application of "war" as metaphor for the energy crisis. They argue that this metaphor determined ways of acting in relation to gas shortages. After reading through Nell Bernstein's articles, how might applying the war metaphor to drug problems make dealing with those problems less effective? -- Keep in mind here that we put criminals, including war criminals, in prisons, but not sick people; we put them in hospitals!

As repeated various times throughout the course of this class, the metaphor is a powerful tool that we, as a society, use to express various complex and sometimes otherwise unexplainable ideas. However, with this use, much danger may arise as such metaphors may be interpreted in a variety of ways that can change the audience’s perspective and understanding of a concept. Such conflicts between interpretations are apparent in Nell Bernstein’s articles that reflect the idea of the government’s then-current drug legislation as a “war.”

With the metaphor “war on drugs” as described in Bernstein’s essays, certain words and denotations come to mind. Reflecting ideas of hate, anger, and destruction, war is socially known to carry a very negative presence for all involved. In Lakoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By, they relate the application of the word “war” within the Carter Presidency’s energy crisis to concepts of an “enemy,” “targets,” and “national security threats.” Thus, when describing the judicial verdicts of habitual drug users, only criticism may arise towards their choices in life. These people did not commit crimes of hatred and were not mass murders. They did, however, make a series of personal choices that led them into a sick lifestyle without control. In no way can that be a comparison to an “enemy” of society. With this interpretation of the “war on drugs,” there is no available hope or chance for redemption in the view of the drug offenders. In this situation, as in war, there is a winner and a loser without any room for compromise.

In its place, the metaphor of actions against drug offenders being a “war” would be best represented as “disease.” Similar to the metaphorical view of addiction, a disease affects all those around a person and can be best cured through time and the proper care. As exemplified within Bernstein’s essays, many with afflicting drug problems have been able to change through the use of government rehabilitation and live happy, productive lives. Creating a better family and social environment, the use of rehabilitation over jail provides a long-lasting alternative rather than a temporary solution to an on-going problem. All in all, through social, economic, and personal implications, the interpretation of drug offenders as people with an illness expresses their hope for a better future through treatment rather than as an unforgivable and hopeless criminal.

Assignment 1 - Metaphors Affect How We Think and Feel: Module 1

The concept of love is a very vague one that can be perceived in a variety of different ways within society. Not knowing much of such an occurrence from my own personal level, there comes some uncertainty of its effects when comparing to cultural metaphors such as “falling in love.” Although most will understand what this initial phrase is trying to express, when examining deeper into the roots of this phrase a mixed interpretation can occur. Synonyms of the word “fall” include: plummet, decrease, collapse, and accident. Through these descriptions, one can only perceive the negative connotations that arise from these definitions – and this seems hardly the image that the metaphor is trying to express. From this perspective, the metaphor seems to only highlight on the pain, suffering, and work that may come from love – opposed to its joys. To “fall in love” literally gives the impression that a person is blindly decreasing himself to hurt and deterioration in the immediate future. This pessimistic view seems to take away all kinds of romanticism that can be found within the values of love. With this metaphor, all feelings of devotion, tenderness, adoration, and perhaps even lust are lost through logistical translation. As expressed in Lakeoff and Johnson’s Metaphors We Live By, it is the described “systematicity” of metaphors that allows all other aspects of the concept – in this case love – to be hidden when they are found inconsistent with the original belief.

Through our choice in words, this metaphorical equation can have much impact on the way we think and feel about very complex concepts. From the point of view of the metaphor “falling into love,” the spectator may continue to have a negative of view of love’s influence on a person’s life and how they react when put in that situation. It is these choices of words that may have direct effects on a person’s behavior or attitude in accordance with love. Should this view continue to guide one’s belief of such a complex issue, he may be less likely in the future to accept love into his life due to the fear of the pain and reduction of oneself that may result. Ultimately, as confirmed in previous modules, the use of distinct words has great power over a person’s thoughts and beliefs, and thus they should be chosen carefully in order to express specific points and ideas correctly.

Assignment 2 – Metaphor as Technology: Introduction

Within Plato’s record of the conversation between Socrates and Phaedrus, there is much discussion about oral and written communication and their influence on the intellectual growth and development of human beings. According to Socrates, writing hurts human beings in two different ways. First of all, he claims, that pure written expression does not allow people to think or make their own conscious decisions about what they are writing. Prompting humans to only blindly accept the points and arguments that the author is trying to express, written communication is far too easy to bias. Secondly, Socrates makes the generalization that some people are more literate with words than others, so many of those who are unable to clearly express their views are disadvantaged to unconditionally accept the words of others. Thus, if we become a writing culture, according to Socrates we are condemned to transform into a very simplistic and naïve culture, as there would be no questioning of ideas or principles. This idea is not supported by the opinions of Goody, as he feels that written communication is now intertwined with oral communication, as each is dependant on the other in order to express complex thoughts and ideas.

In Goody’s piece Technologies of the Intellect, he describes the process of written communication as a form of technology. Because of this assumption, I can best redefine technology as an accumulation of knowledge to recognize and analyze a certain problem or complexity. It is through writing where an author may conceive various solutions to the problems of the world, or even use it as a tool in the expression of such things as education and religion. Thus, although it is not a physical device, in Goody’s opinion writing is a technology of the intellect that is used to serve in the advancement of the cognitive skills of humankind. In my own opinion as well, I fully understand Goody’s argument of writing being an instrument of technology. Although it is subject to much partiality, writing evolves through time just as technology to adjust to the changing beliefs and complexities that are presented to the world. Furthermore, as stated by Goody, writing is more than just another form of communication, as it can be preserved and examined throughout the future and be constantly changed. As with various technological devices, a written work shows its value in only certain time periods and cultures. One circumstance in which I may rely upon the expanded definition of written work as the accumulation of knowledge is when deciding a future career path after college. Our education thus far is the combination of over a decade’s worth of information and personal experience. Through examining past recollections and favorable encounters may we then truly understand what we want to do for the remainder of our professional lives and how we may impact those around us.